The advantages or disadvantages firms experience as a result of their size, referred to in the economic literature as returns to scale, are of central importance in many economic models. Increasing returns to scale, whereby unit costs decrease as output volume increases, could explain productivity differences between Europe and the United States. We present fresh evidence on the returns to scale of European firms: most exhibit constant returns to scale, but a non-trivial share also show increasing returns to scale.

Was verbirgt sich hinter den Begriffen "Eurosystem", "Inflation" und "Deflation"? Der Animationsfilm erklärt diese Begriffe und andere Zusammenhänge leicht verständlich.

Whilst Europe is home to successful payment systems – Germany’s girocard scheme, for instance – these are often only national in scope. How can payment operations be harmonised across Europe and made more convenient for consumers?

The costs of payment methods for consumers are difficult to determine, not recorded in a harmonised manner on an international level and consequently vary significantly from country to country. For this reason, a separate study is necessary for Germany. As part of a representative survey conducted in 2023, households were asked about the costs they incurred when using various means of payment.